Albert Einstein - 1879 - 1955

Einstein contributed more than any other scientist to the modern vision of physical reality. His special and general theories of relativity are still regarded as the most satisfactory model of the large-scale universe that we have.

Quotations by Albert Einstein

(During a lecture)
This has been done elegantly by Minkowski; but chalk is cheaper than grey matter, and we will do it as it comes.
[Attributed by Pólya.]
Quoted in J E Littlewood, A Mathematician's Miscellany, 1953.

Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.
Reader's Digest. Oct. 1977.

I don't believe in mathematics.
Quoted in Carl Seelig. Albert Einstein.

Imagination is more important than knowledge.
On Science.

The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science.
What I Believe.

The bitter and the sweet come from the outside, the hard from within, from one's own efforts.
Out of My Later Years.

Gott würfelt nicht.

Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen.
Quoted in E T Bell Mathematics, Queen and Servant of the Sciences. 1952.

God does not care about our mathematical difficulties. He integrates empirically.
Quoted in L Infeld Quest, 1942.

How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought independent of experience, is so admirably adapted to the objects of reality?

(About Newton)
Nature to him was an open book, whose letters he could read without effort.
Quoted in G Simmons Calculus Gems (New York 1992).

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.
Quoted in J R Newman, The World of Mathematics (New York 1956).

What is this frog and mouse battle among the mathematicians?
[i.e. Brouwer vs. Hilbert]
Quoted in H Eves Mathematical Circles Squared (Boston 1972).

Raffiniert ist der Herr Gott, aber boshaft ist er nicht.
God is subtle, but he is not malicious.
Inscribed in Fine Hall, Princeton University.

Nature hides her secrets because of her essential loftiness, but not by means of ruse.

The human mind has first to construct forms, independently, before we can find them in things.

Since the mathematicians have invaded the theory of relativity, I do not understand it myself anymore.
Quoted in P A Schilpp, Albert Einstein, Philosopher-Scientist (Evanston 1949).

Do not worry about your difficulties in mathematics, I assure you that mine are greater.

The truth of a theory is in your mind, not in your eyes.
Quoted in H Eves Mathematical Circles Squared (Boston 1972).

These thoughts did not come in any verbal formulation. I rarely think in words at all. A thought comes, and I may try to express it in words afterward.
Quoted in H Eves Mathematical Circles Adieu (Boston 1977).

A human being is a part of the whole, called by us "Universe," a part limited in time and space. He experiences himself, his thoughts and feelings as something separated from the resta kind of optical delusion of his consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us. Our task must be to free ourselves from this prison by widening our circle of compassion to embrace all living creatures and the whole of nature in its beauty. Nobody is able to achieve this completely, but the striving for such achievement is in itself a part of the liberation and a foundation for inner security.
Quoted in H Eves Mathematical Circles Adieu (Boston 1977).

The world needs heroes and it's better they be harmless men like me than villains like Hitler.
Quoted in H Eves Return to Mathematical Circles (Boston 1988).

It is nothing short of a miracle that modern methods of instruction have not yet entirely strangled the holy curiousity of inquiry.
Quoted in H Eves Return to Mathematical Circles (Boston 1988).

Everything that is really great and inspiring is created by the individual who can labor in freedom.
Quoted in H Eves Return to Mathematical Circles (Boston 1988).

The search for truth is more precious than its possession.
The American Mathematical Monthly 100 (3).

If my theory of relativity is proven successful, Germany will claim me as a German and France will declare that I am a citizen of the world. Should my theory prove untrue, France will say that I am a German and Germany will declare that I am a Jew.
Address at the Sorbonne, Paris.

We come now to the question: what is a priori certain or necessary, respectively in geometry (doctrine of space) or its foundations? Formerly we thought everything; nowadays we think nothing. Already the distance-concept is logically arbitrary; there need be no things that correspond to it, even approximately.
"Space-Time." Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th ed.

Most of the fundamental ideas of science are essentially simple, and may, as a rule, be expressed in a language comprehensible to everyone.
The Evolution of Physics.

Science without religion is lame; religion without science is blind.
Reader's Digest, Nov. 1973.

(To a student)
Dear Miss --
I have read about sixteen pages of your manuscript ... I suffered exactly the same treatment at the hands of my teachers who disliked me for my independence and passed over me when they wanted assistants ... keep your manuscript for your sons and daughters, in order that they may derive consolation from it and not give a damn for what their teachers tell them or think of them. ... There is too much education altogether.
The World as I See It, (New York, 1949), 21-22.

(Written in old age)
I have never belonged wholeheartedly to a country, a state, nor to a circle of friends, nor even to my own family.
When I was still a rather precocious young man, I already realized most vividly the futility of the hopes and aspirations that most men pursue throughout their lives.
Well-being and happiness never appeared to me as an absolute aim. I am even inclined to compare such moral aims to the ambitions of a pig.
Quoted in C P Snow, Variety of Men, (Harmondsworth 1969) 77.

The relativity principle in connection with the basic Maxwellian equations demands that the mass should be a direct measure of the energy contained in a body; light transfers mass. With radium there should be a noticeable diminution of mass. The idea is amusing and enticing; but whether the Almighty is laughing at it and is leading me up the garden path -- that I cannot know.

When I am judging a theory, I ask myself whether, if I were God, I would have arranged the world in such a way.

Great spirits have always encountered violent opposition from mediocre minds.

.. common sense is nothing more than a deposit of prejudices laid down in the mind before you reach eighteen.
Quoted in E T Bell, Mathematics: Queen and Servant of Science

Thus the partial differential equation entered theoretical physics as a handmaid, but has gradually become mistress.
The World as I See It

But the creative principle resides in mathematics. In a certain sense, therefore, I hold true that pure thought can grasp reality, as the ancients dreamed.
Quoted in H R Pagels, The Cosmic Code

But there is another reason for the high repute of mathematics: it is mathematics that offers the exact natural sciences a certain measure of security which, withut mathematics, they could not attain.
Quoted in E T Bell Men of Mathematics

One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its laws are absolutely certain and indisputable, while those of other sciences are to some extent debatable and in constant danger of being overthrown by newly discovered facts.
Sidelights on Relativity

As far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality.
Sidelights on Relativity

How can it be that mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of experience, is so admirably appropriate to the objects of reality? Is human reason, then, without experience, merely by taking thought, able to fathom the properties of real things?
Sidelights on Relativity

Mathematics are well and good but nature keeps dragging us around by the nose.
Quoted in A P French, Einstein: a Centenary Volume

Education is that which remains when one has forgotten everything learned in school.
Ideas and opinions (New York, 1954).

A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life depend on the labours of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

Before God we are all equally wise - equally foolish.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

Each of us visits that Earth involuntarily and without an invitation. For me, it is enough to wonder at its secrets.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

If at first the idea is not absurd, then there is no hope for it.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

It is my contention that killing under the cloak of war is nothing but an act of murder.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

My religion consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slightest details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble minds.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

Reading after a certain time diverts the mind too much from its creative pursuits. Any man who reads too much and uses his own brain too little falls into lazy habits of thinking.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).
[EFR: For a modern view replace reading by watching television.]

Sometimes one pays most for things one gets for nothing.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

The most incomprehensible fact about the universe is that it is comprehensible.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

The world we have made, as a result of the level of thinking we have done thus far, creates problems we cannot solve at the same level of thinking at which we created them.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

There are two ways to live your life. One is as though nothing is a miracle. The other is as though everything is a miracle.
Quoted in Des MacHale, Wisdom (London, 2002).

pictures of Albert Einstein

Further pictures of Albert Einstein

With his wife Mileva and first son Hans Albert in 1904	Becoming an American citizen in 1940 with his secretary Dukas and stepdaughter Margot
Visiting the USA in 1921 with his second wife Elsa

Pictures of Albert Einstein

Pictures of Albert Einstein

	Drawing by Iutta Waloschek

Albert Einstein

In the following lines we tell you about the life of Albert Einstein. It is a sort of Albert Einstein's Biography. Read on to know about Albert Einsteins life history.

Albert Einstein was born at Ulm, in Württemberg, Germany, on March 14, 1879. In 1901, he accepted a position as technical assistant in the Swiss Patent Office. In 1905 he obtained his doctor's degree.

In 1908, he was appointed Privatdozent in Berne. In 1909, he became Professor Extraordinary at Zurich. In 1911, he became Professor of Theoretical Physics at Prague. In 1914, he was appointed Director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Physical Institute and Professor in the University of Berlin. In 1933, he took the position of Professor of Theoretical Physics at Princeton.

After World War II, Einstein was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined. He collaborated with Dr. Chaim Weizmann to establish the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity stemmed from an attempt to reconcile the laws of mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. He dealt with classical problems of statistical mechanics and problems in which they were merged with quantum theory. This led to an explanation of the Brownian movement of molecules. He investigated the thermal properties of light with a low radiation density and his observations laid the foundation of the photon theory of light.

In 1916, he published his paper on the general theory of relativity. During this time he also contributed to the problems of the theory of radiation and statistical mechanics.

In the 1920's, Einstein embarked on the construction of unified field theories. He contributed to statistical mechanics by his development of the quantum theory of a monatomic gas. He also accomplished valuable work in connection with atomic transition probabilities and relativistic cosmology.

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the noble prize and elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1925, he was awarded the Royal Society Copley Medal. In 1927, he was elected the Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

After his retirement he continued to work towards the unification of the basic concepts of physics. Einstein's more important works include Special Theory of Relativity (1905), Relativity (English translations, 1920 and 1950), General Theory of Relativity (1916), Investigations on Theory of Brownian Movement (1926), and The Evolution of Physics (1938). Among his non-scientific works, the most important ones are- About Zionism (1930), Why War? (1933), My Philosophy (1934), and Out of My Later Years (1950).

Albert Einstein received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy from many European and American universities. During the 1920's, he was awarded Fellowships or Memberships of all the leading scientific academies throughout the world. He gained numerous awards in recognition of his work, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London in 1925, and the Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1935.

Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.

Honours awarded to Albert Einstein
Nobel Prize	1921
Fellow of the Royal Society	1921
LMS Honorary Member	1924
Royal Society Copley Medal	1925
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh	1927
AMS Gibbs Lecturer	1934
Lunar features	Crater Einstein

Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians that ever lived. He was born in England on December 25, 1643. He was born the same year that Galileo died. He lived for 85 years.

Isaac Newton was raised by his grandmother. He attended Free Grammar School and then went on to Trinity College Cambridge. Newton worked his way through college. While at college he became interested in math, physics, and astronomy. Newton received both a bachelors and masters degree.

While Newton was in college he was writing his ideas in a journal. Newton had new ideas about motion, which he called his three laws of motion. He also had ideas about gravity, the diffraction of light, and forces. Newton's ideas were so good that Queen Anne knighted him in 1705. His accomplishments laid the foundations for modern science and revolutionized the world. Sir Isaac Newton died in 1727.

In this lesson you will develop an understanding of each of Newton's Three Laws of Motion.

Newton's first law

According to Newton's first law...

An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. This law is often called "the law of inertia".

What does this mean?

This means that there is a natural tendency of objects to keep on doing what they're doing. All objects resist changes in their state of motion. In the absence of an unbalanced force, an object in motion will maintain this state of motion.

Let's study the "skater" to understand this a little better.
What is the motion in this picture?

What is the unbalanced force in this picture?

What happened to the skater in this picture?



This law is the same reason why you should always wear your seatbelt.

Now that you understand
Newton's First Law of Motion,
let's go on to his Second Law of Motion.

Newton's second law

According to Newton's second law...

Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).

What does this mean?

Everyone unconsiously knows the Second Law. Everyone knows that heavier objects require more force to move the same distance as lighter objects.

However, the Second Law gives us an exact relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. It can be expressed as a mathematical equation:

or
FORCE = MASS times ACCELERATION



This is an example of how Newton's Second Law works:

Mike's car, which weighs 1,000 kg, is out of gas. Mike is trying to push the car to a gas station, and he makes the car go 0.05 m/s/s. Using Newton's Second Law, you can compute how much force Mike is applying to the car.

Answer = 50 newtons


This is easy, let's go on to
Newton's Third Law of Motion

Newton's third law

According to Newton's third law...

For every action there is an equal and opposite  re-action.

What does this mean?

This means that for every force there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. That is to say that whenever an object pushes another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.



Let's study how a rocket works to understand
Newton's Third Law.

The rocket's action is to push  down on the ground with the force of its powerful engines, and the reaction is that the ground pushes the rocket upwards with an equal force.

UP, UP, and AWAY!

You have just learned about
Newton's Three Laws of Motion.

Blogger Buzz: Blogger Babies

Blogger Buzz: Blogger Babies

The History Of Carbon

I. Introduction
A. The History of Carbon

II. Occurrences in Nature
A. Diamond B. Graphite C. Coal and Charcoal D. Amorphous Carbon

III. Carbon Compounds
A. Inorganic B. Organic

IV. The Carbon Cycle IV. Conclusion Carbon, an element discovered before history itself, is one of the most abundant elements in the universe. It can be found in the sun, the stars, comets, and the atmospheres of most planets. There are close to ten million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to the basis of life itself
(WWW 1).
Carbon occurs in many forms in nature. One of its purest forms is diamond. Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth.
Although diamonds found in nature are colorless and transparent, when combined with other elements its color can range from pastels to black. Diamond is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Until 1955 the only sources of diamond were found in deposits of volcanic origin. Since then scientists have found ways to make diamond from graphite and other synthetic materials. Diamonds of true gem quality are not made in this way (Beggott 3-4).
Graphite is another form of carbon. It occurs as a mineral in nature, but it can be made artificially from amorphous carbon. One of the main uses for graphite is for its lubricating qualities. Another is for the lead in pencils. Graphite is used as a heat resistant material and an electricity conductor. It is also used in nuclear reactors as a lubricator (Kino*censored*a 119-127).
Amorphous carbon is a deep black powder that occurs in nature as a component of coal. It may be obtained artificially from almost any organic substance by heating the substance to very high temperatures without air. Using this method, coke is produced from coal, and charcoal is produced from wood. Amorphous carbon is the most reactive form of carbon. Because amorphous carbon burns easily in air, it is used as a combustion fuel. The most important uses for amorphous carbon are as a filler for rubber and as a black pigment in paint (WWW 2).
There are two kinds of carbon compounds. The first is inorganic. Inorganic compounds are binary compounds of carbon with metals or metal carbides. They have properties ranging from reactive and saltlike; found in metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum, to an unreactive and metallic, such as titanium and niobium (Beggott 4). Carbon compounds containing nonmetals are usually gases or liquids with low boiling points. Carbon monoxide, a gas, is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon (Kino*censored*a 215-223). It is highly toxic to animals because it inhibits the transport of oxygen in the blood by hemoglobin (WWW 2).
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, almost odorless gas that is formed by the combustion of carbon. It is a product that results from respiration in most living organisms and is used by plants as a source of carbon. Frozen carbon dioxide, known as dry ice, is used as a refrigerant. Fluorocarbons, such as Freon, are used as refrigerants (Kino*censored*a 225-226). Organic compounds are those compounds that occur in nature. The simplest organic compounds consist of only carbon and hydrogen, the hydrocarbons. The state of matter for organic compounds depends on how many carbons are contained in it. If a compound has up to four carbons it is a gas, if it has up to 20 carbons it is a liquid, and if it has more than 20 carbons it is a solid (Kino*censored*a 230-237). The carbon cycle is the system of biological and chemical processes that make carbon available to living things for use in tissue building and energy release (Kino*censored*a 242). All living cells are composed of proteins consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in various combinations, and each living organism puts these elements together according to its own genetic code. To do this the organism must have these available in special compounds built around carbon. These special compounds are produced only by plants, by the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process in which chlorophyll traps and uses energy from the sun in the form of light. Six molecules of carbon dioxide combine with six molecules of water to form one molecule of glucose (sugar). The glucose molecule consists of six atoms of carbon, twelve of hydrogen, and six of oxygen. Six oxygen molecules, consisting of two oxygen atoms each, are also produced and are discharged into the atmosphere unless the plant needs energy to live. In that case, the oxygen combines with the glucose immediately, releasing six molecules of carbon dioxide and six of water for each molecule of glucose (Beggott 25-32). The carbon cycle is then completed as the plant obtains the energy that was stored by the glucose. The length of time required to complete the cycle varies. In plants without an immediate need for energy, the chemical processes continue in a variety of ways. By reducing the hydrogen and oxygen content of most of the sugar molecules by one water molecule and combining them to form large molecules, plants produce substances such as starch, inulin , and fats and store them for future use. Regardless of whether the stored food is used later by the plant or consumed by some other organism, the molecules will ultimately be digested and oxidized, and carbon dioxide and water will be discharged. Other molecules of sugar undergo a series of chemical changes and are finally combined with nitrogen compounds to form protein substances, which are then used to build tissues (WWW 2). Although protein substances may pass from organism to organism, eventually these too are oxidized and form carbon dioxide and water as cells wear out and are broken down, or as the organisms die. In either case, a new set of organisms, ranging from fungi to the large scavengers, use the waste products or tissues for food, digesting and oxidizing the substances for energy release (WWW 1).
At various times in the Earth's history, some plant and animal tissues have been protected by erosion and sedimentation from the natural agents of decomposition and converted into substances such as peat, lignite, petroleum, and coal. The carbon cycle, temporarily interrupted in this manner, is completed as fuels are burned, and carbon dioxide and water are again added to the atmosphere for reuse by living things, and the solar energy stored by photosynthesis ages ago is released (Kino*censored*a 273-275). Almost everything around us today has some connection with carbon or a carbon compound. Carbon is in every living organism. Without carbon life would not exist as we know it.

White Blood Cells

White Blood Cells Bacteria exist everywhere in the environment and have continuous access to the body through the mouth, nose and pores of skin. Further more, many cells age and die daily and their remains must be removed, this is where the white blood cell plays its role. According to this quotation, without white blood cells, also known as leukocytes, we would not be able to survive. White blood cells are our body’s number one defense against infections. They help keep us clean from foreign bacteria that enter our bodies. Statistics show that there are five to ten thousand white blood cells per micro liter of blood, however this number will increase during an illness. White blood cells can differ in many ways, such as, size, shape and staining traits. There are five different kinds of white blood cells that fall into two separate categories. One category is called, granular leukocytes, and the other is called agranular white cells. There are three different types of granular leukocytes. Neutrophil is a phagocyte, produced in the bone marrow that ingests and destroys bacteria extremely fast. Neutrophil has a diameter, which is, about ten to twelve micrometers long. They make up about 60-70 percent of the total number of white blood cells in our body. Eosinphil is a type of white blood cell that secretes poisonous materials in order to kill parasites, allergies and phagocytosis of bacteria, which is when the cell takes in materials to eliminate them or move them from where they were. They make up about 2-4 percent of the total number of white blood cells in our body. These white blood cells are similar to Neutrophil because they attack bacteria by the immune system. This particular group of white blood cells is extremely important in my body, because they are prominent at sites of allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis. The nucleus of Eosinphil is made of two lobes, and implanted in the cytoplasm are large, red-orange granules, and the diameter of them is on average about twelve to fifteen µm. The third type of granular leukocytes is called, basophil. Basophil’s major function is, secretion. They tend to have a diameter of 12-15 µm. These cells make up only about one percent of the total population of white blood cells, causing them to be much more difficult to detect. These cells secrete both histamine and heparin. Histamine draws blood into the damaged area, while heparin slows clotting so that more blood can enter the damaged area. There are two different kinds of agranular white cells. One is called monocyte, and the other is called lymphocyte. The major function of monocyte is, phagocytosis. These cells more very quickly and are therefore able to consume bacteria and dead tissue at a fast rate. Monocytes have an average diameter of, 12-17 µm, and they make up about 3-8 percent of our leukocyte’s population. Lymphocytes, major function are immunity. There are many different forms of lymphocytes, and all of the different forms have different functions. B-lymphocytes produce, plasma cells, which form antibodies to (humeral immune response), T-lymphocytes produce, suppressor cells, helper cells, and cytotoxic, killer cells. Lymphocytes have a diameter of about 8-18 µm. In general leukocytes, “either clear away dead cells from the body, or destroy specific bacteria, viruses, and other agents of disease.”

Acid Rain

Acid Rain Acid rain is a serious problem with disastrous effects. Each day this serious problem increases, many people believe that this issue is too small to deal with right now this issue should be met head on and solved before it is too late. In the following paragraphs I will be discussing the impact has on the wildlife and how our atmosphere is being destroyed by acid rain. CAUSES Acid rain is a cancer eating into the face of Eastern Canada and the North Eastern United States. In Canada, the main sulphuric acid sources are non©ferrous smelters and power generation. On both sides of the border, cars and trucks are the main sources for nitric acid(about 40% of the total), while power generating plants and industrial commercial and residential fuel combustion together contribute most of the rest. In the air, the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can be transformed into sulphuric acid and nitric acid, and air current can send them thousands of kilometres from the source.When the acids fall to the earth in any form it will have large impact on the growth or the preservation of certain wildlife. NO DEFENCE Areas in Ontario mainly southern regions that are near the Great Lakes, such substances as limestone or other known antacids can neutralize acids entering the body of water thereby protecting it. However, large areas of Ontario that are near the Pre©Cambrian Shield, with quartzite or granite based geology and little top soil, there is not enough buffering capacity to neutralize even small amounts of acid falling on the soil and the lakes. Therefore over time, the basic environment shifts from an alkaline to a acidic one. This is why many lakes in the Muskoka, Haliburton, Algonquin, Parry Sound and Manitoulin districts could lose their fisheries if sulphur emissions are not reduced substantially. ACID The average mean of pH rainfall in Ontario's Muskoka©Haliburton lake country ranges between 3.95 and 4.38 about 40 times more acidic than normal rainfall, while storms in Pennsilvania have rainfall pH at 2.8 it almost has the same rating for vinegar. Already 140 Ontario lakes are completely dead or dying. An additional 48 000 are sensitive and vulnerable to acid rain due to the surrounding concentrated acidic soils.Ô ACID RAIN CONSISTS OF....? Canada does not have as many people, power plants or automobiles as the United States, and yet acid rain there has become so severe that Canadian government officials called it the most pressing environmental issue facing the nation. But it is important to bear in mind that acid rain is only one segment, of the widespread pollution of the atmosphere facing the world. Each year the global atmosphere is on the receiving end of 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide, 130 million tons of suffer dioxide, 97 million tons of hydrocarbons, 53 million tons of nitrogen oxides, more than three million tons of arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc and other toxic metals, and a host of synthetic organic compounds ranging from polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) to toxaphene and other pesticides, a number of which may be capable of causing cancer, birth defects, or genetic imbalances. COST OF ACID RAIN Interactions of pollutants can cause problems. In addition to contributing to acid rain, nitrogen oxides can react with hydrocarbons to produce ozone, a major air pollutant responsible in the United States for annual losses of $2 billion to 4.5 billion worth of wheat, corn, soyabeans, and peanuts. A wide range of interactions can occur many unknown with toxic metals. In Canada, Ontario alone has lost the fish in an estimated 4000 lakes and provincial authorities calculate that Ontario stands to lose the fish in 48 500 more lakes within the next twenty years if acid rain continues at the present rate.Ontario is not alone, on Nova Scotia's Eastern most shores, almost every river flowing to the Atlantic Ocean is poisoned with acid. Further threatening a $2 million a year fishing industry. Ô Acid rain is killing more than lakes. It can scar the leaves of hardwood forest, wither ferns and lichens, accelerate the death of coniferous needles, sterilize seeds, and weaken the forests to a state that is vulnerable to disease infestation and decay. In the soil the acid neutralizes chemicals vital for growth, strips others from the soil and carries them to the lakes and literally retards the respiration of the soil. The rate of forest growth in the White Mountains of New Hampshire has declined 18% between 1956 and 1965, time of increasingly intense acidic rainfall. Acid rain no longer falls exclusively on the lakes, forest, and thin soils of the Northeast it now covers half the continent. EFFECTS There is evidence that the rain is destroying the productivity of the once rich soils themselves, like an overdose of chemical fertilizer or a gigantic drenching of vinegar. The damage of such overdosing may not be repairable or reversible. On some croplands, tomatoes grow to only half their full weight, and the leaves of radishes wither. Naturally it rains on cities too, eating away stone monuments and concrete structures, and corroding the pipes which channel the water away to the lakes and the cycle is repeated. Paints and automobile paints have its life reduce due to the pollution in the atmosphere speeding up the corrosion process. In some communities the drinking water is laced with toxic metals freed from metal pipes by the acidity. As if urban skies were not already grey enough, typical visibility has declined from 10 to 4 miles, along the Eastern seaboard, as acid rain turns into smogs. Also, now there are indicators that the components of acid rain are a health risk, linked to human respiratory disease. PREVENTION However, the acidification of water supplies could result in increased concentrations of metals in plumbing such as lead, copper and zinc which could result in adverse health effects. After any period of non©use, water taps at summer cottages or ski chalets they should run the taps for at least 60 seconds to flush any excess debris. Ô STATISTICS Although there is very little data, the evidence indicates that in the last twenty to thirty years the acidity of rain has increased in many parts of the United States. Presently, the United States annually discharges more than 26 million tons of suffer dioxide into the atmosphere. Just three states, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are responsible for nearly a quarter of this total. Overall, twoªthirds of the suffer dioxide into the atmosphere over the United States comes from coal©fired and oil fired plants. Industrial boilers, smelters, and refineries contribute 26%; commercial institutions and residences 5%; and transportation 3%. The outlook for future emissions of suffer dioxide is not a bright one. Between now and the year 2000, United States utilities are expected to double the amount of coal they burn. The United States currently pumps some 23 million tons of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere in the course of the year. Transportation sources account for 40%; power plants, 30%; industrial sources, 25%; and commercial institutions and residues, 5%. What makes these figures particularly distributing is that nitrogen oxide emissions have tripled in the last thirty years. FINAL THOUGHTS Acid rain is very real and a very threatening problem. Action by one government is not enough. In order for things to be done we need to find a way to work together on this for at least a reduction in the contaminates contributing to acid rain. Although there are right steps in the right directions but the government should be cracking down on factories not using the best filtering systems when incinerating or if the factory is giving off any other dangerous fumes. I would like to express this question to you, the public:WOULD YOU RATHER PAY A LITTLE NOW OR A LOT LATER?

What Is Science

define science as a system of knowledge about a specific topic. The systems come from systematic, or precise, observations of natural events; a random example would be the study of the movement of a caterpillar. This very fact would make one think that science encompasses every topic in the world. It amazingly does; from apples to zucchini (in the science called botany). Science is not just the “systems” of Chemistry, Physics, and Biology as traditionally known. It is the systems of our knowledge about everything on this planet, beyond, and even the human race. Science is an action word in most cases. I am witnessing the topics in the science of anatomy and physiology as type this home-lesson: the blood vessels supplying blood to my bones are allowing me to move my fingers and press the keys. Furthermore, science is a vehicle for change in our society today. The systems of knowledge are communicated by scientists through science media such as journals, web-sites (the internet), newspapers and through person-to-person interaction. At Tufts University a Ph.D. student may share his experiment on drug metabolism rates in the form of a presentation; moreover, someone in his same lab might use points from his research as a stepping stone or bridge leading and connecting, respectively their research to success. Science is what we are and what shapes our world.

Nanotechnology

The science of nanotechnology could lead to radical improvements for space exploration.

When it comes to taking the next "giant leap" in space exploration, NASA is thinking small - really small.

In laboratories around the country, NASA is supporting the burgeoning science of nanotechnology. The basic idea is to learn to deal with matter at the atomic scale - to be able to control individual atoms and molecules well enough to design molecule-size machines, advanced electronics and "smart" materials.

If visionaries are right, nanotechnology could lead to robots you can hold on your fingertip, self-healing spacesuits, space elevators and other fantastic devices. Some of these things may take 20+ years to fully develop; others are taking shape in the laboratory today.

Thinking small

Image by artist Pat Rawling. Nanotechnology could provide the very high-strength, low-weight fibers that would be needed to build the cable of a "space elevator."

Simply making things smaller has its advantages. Imagine, for example, if the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity could have been made as small as a beetle, and could scurry over rocks and gravel as a beetle can, sampling minerals and searching for clues to the history of water on Mars. Hundreds or thousands of these diminutive robots could have been sent in the same capsules that carried the two desk-size rovers, enabling scientists to explore much more of the planet's surface - and increasing the odds of stumbling across a fossilized Martian bacterium!

But nanotechnology is about more than just shrinking things. When scientists can deliberately order and structure matter at the molecular level, amazing new properties sometimes emerge.

An excellent example is that darling of the nanotechnology world, the carbon nanotube. Carbon occurs naturally as graphite - the soft, black material often used in pencil leads - and as diamond. The only difference between the two is the arrangement of the carbon atoms. When scientists arrange the same carbon atoms into a "chicken wire" pattern and roll them up into miniscule tubes only 10 atoms across, the resulting "nanotubes" acquire some rather extraordinary traits.

Nanotubes:

How Space Was Created?

When we look around us we take the space for granted. We know that space is the distance between tow objects. Or what lies between two objects. As things are scattered in the world there is space that occupies that. It is true for outer space that lies between tow stars. This space is three-dimensional. Was this space there since eternity? Who created the space? If no object is left in the cosmos what would happen to the space? Will it still remain? How Space Was Created?

We know that at the time of Big bang everything exploded out of a point called singularity. What most of us do not realize is that at that time there was no space. There was only this single point in the cosmos and nothing else. It is difficult to imagine and understand, isn't it?

As the mass and energy exploded out space was created. At this time there are billions of stars that are running away from us. The universe is expanding. This is creating more and more space. What lies beyond this space? Is there another cosmos/universe or more space? No body knows the answer to this question. According to Einstein one can never reach the edge of the space. This space is something like the surface of the earth. There are no edges. It folds on itself. So if you start looking or the edge of the space you will come back from where you began. Of course the distances are so vast that it is impossible for any mortal to think of doing this. Billions of light years make a very huge distance. This distance is unimaginable.

Next time you look at the sky begin thinking about the space, the stars and what lies beyond everything. You will forget your problems at home and work because you will feel you are so small compared to what is happening out there.

4 Simple Inventions That Changed the World

There are many conveniences that we take for granted these days. In fact, it's hard to imagine life without many things that were cutting edge long ago! Computers, vehicles, gas and electric ranges, sewing machines and ballpoint pens are just some of the innovations that influence daily life.

They say the simplest inventions are the cleverest. I agree. There is a recent story about a three-year old kid who invented a double-ended broom, one for a coarse brush and one for a fine brush. It's amazing that he's the first to patent that. Throughout history, such simple inventions changed the lives of people everywhere. What are these all-important devices?

1. The Wheel - one of the early inventions that changed the way humans lived. We see it everywhere; on cars, trucks, planes, ships, inside machines, toys, and much much more. Life wouldn't be the same without the wheel. It was said to be invented by the Mesopotamians in 4th century BC, eventually helping usher about the Bronze Age. Starting from wooden carts and wagons, the simple yet so very useful device evolved over time. With so many uses and applications, it is forever part of the human race, and one of the first steps to civilization. Can you imagine being unable to take a taxi to your hotel, instead footing several miles with tons of bags? Or spending an hour walking to get to the mall?

2. Tools - Yet another thing that set us on the path of civilization. Humans have opposable thumbs, which led to the creation of tools. Simple tools like sharp rocks used to cut turned into knives and spears. Large rock used as a hammer became actual hammers. We built our own houses, caught animals, made our own fields and improved our way of life with tools. Interestingly, some mammals and birds use tools too.

3. Sewers - Sanitation is important to civilized people. A system where waste is gathered and disposed of in once place rather than everywhere is indeed helpful. Ancient people saw this, and were among the first to invent the system. Today, we rarely think of the network of pipes running under our feet, making sure that our waste stays out of our sight, and out of our noses! I'm happy knowing that we're not defecating on the ground. Well, most of the time.

4. Roads - Along with the first wheeled inventions, roads came about. Dirt paths worn by hunters were common before vehicles, but it was only after the wheeled inventions were invented that there became a real need for better roads. Dirt-worn paths became wood, stone and brick roads. Because of the ease of transport roads offered, the world became prosperous. Today, they are the backbone of economy and society. Imagine life without roads now. We would be living in houses in a haphazard manner. Goods are transported slower. There would be more accidents

There you have it! These are, for me, the ones that truly shaped the world. Well, I guess money did, too. What inventions do you think changed the world?

Human Anatomy

I have studied and interviewed groups of medical and science students that have excelled in their course work. It is true that there are specific and detailed guidelines that these students adhere to and credit for their academic success. With some time and applying these study skills to your studies you can greatly improve your academic performance. The following are study strategies and tips from past honor students of Human Anatomy.

Study Skill #1 - It is NOT enough to simply read, re-read, and re-type up the notes. The goal in anatomy is to become a visual learner, so it is extremely important to keep pictures in front of you. Let's say you are studying the forearm for example. The best approach is three pronged. That is, to have three pictures out side-by-side, one of the superficial structures, one of the deep muscles and bone matrix, and a third of cross-sections. Now as you read each sentence of your text, the words will have graphic substance to support them. This allows your brain to start building the 3-D structure of the human body.

Study Skill #2 - Knowing the relationships is key. This means that if you are given a point anywhere in the human body, that you should be able to navigate your way to any other point by spatial relationships to landmark structures. The best way to accomplish this is by describing the path of a body part in relation to its surroundings. Let's take the Ulnar Nerve for example. Beginning in the axilla, it courses as the most medial branch of the brachial plexus. As it descends down the arm, it remains superficial to the triceps muscles, medial to the humerus, and maintains a tight medial position to the brachial artery. It continues this until the distal region of the arm, where it courses on the posterior aspect of the humerus, and then it makes a tight cross over the elbow joint posterior to the medial epicondyle. It continues between the heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and enters the anterior compartment of the forearm where it accompanies the ulnar artery. This will enhance your understanding of human anatomy because it forces your brain to travel through the mental images and describe it in your own words. This is a skill that will be necessary for nerve lesion questions.

Study Skill #3 - Make charts for the muscles. List the muscles in the rows on the left and then make columns on the right for Origin, Insertion, Action, and Innervation. Stare at pictures of the muscle under study and match the answers in the columns with the pictures.

Study Skill #4 - Memorize the boundaries and contents of specific compartments of the human body. For example, the Cubital Fossa is bounded: Laterally - medial border of brachioradialis, Medially - the lateral border of pronator teres, Floor - brachialis, Roof - skin and fascia, Contents - median nerve, brachial artery, tendon of biceps, radial nerve, & median cubital vein. Once these have been memorized they serve as valuable landmarks to navigate your way around the body.

Study Skill #5 - Understand the terminology. This is obvious, but if you do it from the very beginning of your human anatomy course it will save you a lot of time later on. Anatomists often sound like they are speaking a different language and it overwhelms students at first. But if you take the time, you will see that a name of a muscle or ligament will often tell of its origin, insertion, or action. Flexor Digitorum Profundus for example, is the major muscle that flexes the fingers. Therefore, you may already know what Flexor Digitorum Superficialis does, it's the same action, but this weaker muscle lies closer to the surface of the forearm. In addition, arteries tend to be named for their destination. The right coronary artery will supply blood to the right ventricle of the heart. Knowing the terminology breaks down the information in digestable pieces and makes it easier for you to remember where things are positioned.

Study Skill #6 - Photocopy the pictures from your anatomy book and white out the labels. In fact, make several copies of important diagrams without labels and use these to study and fill them in on your own. It is often helpful to use these same pictures to trace the pathways of the nerves and arteries with colored pencils. This will help to separate the structures in your mind and reinforce their routes.

Study Skill #7 - If you have access to a cadaver, give him/her a name, because the amount of time you spend with the cadaver is directly related to your grade. Identify the same structure on multiple cadavers. This exercise will prove that you can use different anatomical landmarks as a navigation system for the human body. This is also important to understand and identify regions of variation in the body, such as arterial branches of the subclavian. Keep in mind that arteries should be named based on where they are going, not where they branched from.

Jordan Castle is medical student and cognitive psychologist research assistant. His work spans many different aspects of the learning process and aims to help students excel in their individual courses. Detailed study strategies and practice exams can be found on his website at http://medstudysites.com Courses include: Physiology, Genetics, Histology, Neuroanatomy, and Histology.

About Gasifier

The first gasifiers were known as gasification retorts and they have been around for well over a century providing our town gas supplies from coal. In basic terms they involve a container in which combustible fuel is heated, driving off flammable hydrocarbon gases. These gases are then scrubbed in filters to remove particulate matter and any corrosive chemicals, before being plumbed into anything from the towns gas supply to a modified carburettor to fuel a standard internal combustion engine.

Gasifiers are available now. They are proven technology. They can and are helping in the war to reduce gas and electricity prices, and the magic thing is that the same principle can be applied to many fuels other than coal.

These systems are capable of producing electricity from any biomass source. They may use any fuel in some, such as coal, petroleum coke, residual oil, oil emulsions, tar sands, and/or other similar fuels. Gasifiers produce a gas which is commonly known as syngas. This gas is used mostly where it is created to power a gas turbine. Gasification uses chemistry and high temperature and pressures to change the way the coal or other form of solid carbonaceous (fossil) fuel produces heat. In other words instead of burning the fuel outright, a gasifier part burns the fuel due to the presence of only a limited amount of oxygen and creates a fuel gas.

One gasifier, for example, is a device that has been developed by TERI (The Tata Energy Research Institute in India) for use in the drying of cardamom. The gasifier uses briquettes that are made from firewood and other types of biomass and turns them into a gas that burns with a clean smokeless flame.

In another example a gasifier is the key component in the Ag Bio-Power Energy System, but it is not the only component. In the patented configuration of the system, solid wastes containing metals and other non-combustible materials are burned separately while a gasifier is used as a scrubber for the polluting emissions because gasification is so good at burning out these substances.

It is reported that Household and Commercial Waste can also be gasified. In this case combustible gases are used within the system for increased efficiency and high temperature combustion than is archived in an incinerator. After gasification the residue of thermal decomposition is cooled and rough particles such as metals and non-combustibles are separated by means of a vibrating sieve and magnetic separator. The separated fine particles are mostly ash and carbon content, and these particles can then be crushed and sent to the final furnace for vitrification, where they are turned into essentially a form of glass, safely binding in any toxic substances, out of harm's way, for ever.

Combustible waste from industrial production processes which is reported to be suitable for gasification includes textile waste, wood scrap/trimmings, plastic scrap, and non-reusable solvents. Textile waste can consist of excess yarn, thread, cloth, carpet, or any other fabric. Combustion temperatures of 1500-1600~F and heat release rates of about 400,000 Btu/cu ft/hr are possible and give heat transfer rates reported to be larger than those of conventional pulverized coal boilers.

Some of these technology providers are claiming cell microturbine combinations are possible which have the potential to achieve up to 60 percent efficiency and near-zero emissions. On top of that they say that fuel flexibility enables the use of low-cost indigenous fuels, renewables and waste materials. Even, for example, experts say briquettes produced from agricultural residues can be used in some gasifier models.

Some gasifier plant is now also being developed which is based on fluidized bed technology with the possibility of the common and low cost availability of practically zero emissions release systems achieving high efficiencies using a host cheap, locally produced, renewable fuel sources.

Now, we think that this is pretty cool, when at present all we can see is rapidly rising gas prices and practically no alternatives for me and you, but to pay them.

Reducing energy demand, especially in the sense of better insulation for heating homes and offices, is of course, more of a potential for saving CO2 emissions, but that's not what what we are discussing in this article.

We have been here before, as well, in that in the mid to late 1970s, when it was believed that there was going to be a shortfall of oil due to the formation of OPEC, fuel prices rose excessively. At that time also there was an expected decline in supplies, and considerable effort went into developing alternatives. But, those efforts came to very little, as in real terms the alternatives were still more expensive than the oil and coal based alternatives. This time around that is no longer the case, so expect to hear about more suddenly "cool" energy solutions, but which are also very "hot" indeed - at the same time!

Blood Vessels

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF BLOOD VESSELS

INTRODUCTION

The main transport systems are the circulatory systems, in which substances are dissolved or suspended in liquid and carried from one part of the body to another in a system of tubes called vessels.

There are two main circulatory systems:

The blood circulatory system (sometimes called the cardiovascular system) and the LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

The blood circulatory system is the main method of transporting oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and metabolic breakdown products, cells of the immune and other defence systems, chemical messengers (hormones), other important substances (e.g. clotting factors).

The lymphatic system drains extra-cellular fluid from the tissues returning it to the blood circulatory system after passage through lymph nodes. This system is also involved in absorption of nutrients from the gut.

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THE BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

There are three types of blood circulatory system, two of which (systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation) depend on a pump, the heart, to push the blood around. The third type of circulation is known as a portal system. These are specialised channels that connect one capillary bed site to another but do not depend directly on a central pump. The largest of these in the human is the hepatic portal system which connects the intestines to the liver.

The systemic circulation transfers oxygenated blood from a central pump (the heart) to all of the body tissues (systemic arterial system) and returns deoxygenated blood with a high carbon dioxide content from the tissues to the central pump (systemic venous system).

As briefly mentioned above the systemic circulation supplies all the body tissues, and is where exchange of nutrients and products of metabolism occurs. All the blood for the systemic circulation leaves the left side of the heart via the aorta.

This large artery then divides into smaller arteries and blood is delivered to all tissues and organs. These arteries divide into smaller and smaller vessels each with its own characteristic structure and function. The smallest branches are called arterioles.

The arterioles themselves branch into a number of very small thin vessels, the capillaries, and it is here that the exchange of gases, nutrients and waste products occurs.

Exchange occurs by diffusion of substances down concentration and pressure gradients.

The capillaries then unite to form larger vessels, venules, which in turn unite to form fewer and larger vessels, known as veins.

The veins from different organs and tissues unite to form two large veins. The inferior vena cava (from the lower portion of the body) and the superior vena cava (from the head and arms), which return blood to the right side of the heart. Thus there are a number of parallel circuits within the systemic circulation.

The pulmonary circulation is where oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the blood and alveolar air occurs. The blood leaves the right side of the heart through a single artery, the pulmonary artery, which divides into two - one branch supplying each LUNG. Within the lung, the arteries divide, ultimately forming arterioles and capillaries; venules and veins return blood to the left side of the heart.

Portal circulation. Normally there is only one capillary bed for each branch of a circuit; however, there are a few instances where there are two capillary beds, one after each other, in series. These are known as portal systems or portal circulations. One example of this is in the liver. Part of the blood supply to the liver is venous blood coming directly from the QASTROINTENTINAL tract and spleen via the hepatic portal vein. This arrangement enables the digested and absorbed substances from the gut to be transported directly to the liver, where many of the body's metabolic requirements are synthesised. Thus there are two micro-circulations in series, one in the gut and the other in the liver.

The force required to move the blood through the blood vessels in the two circulations is provided by the heart, which functions as two pumps, the left side of the heart supplying the systemic circulation and the right side the pulmonary circulation.

The systemic circulation is much larger than the pulmonary circulation and thus the force generated by the left side of the heart is much greater than that of the right side of the heart. However, as the circulatory system is a closed system, the volume of blood pumped through the pulmonary circulation in a given period of time must equal the volume pumped through the systemic circulation - that is, the right and left sides of the heart must pump the same amount of blood. In a normal resting adult, the average volume of blood pumped simultaneously is approximately 5 litres per min. As there are approximately 5 litres of blood in an adult, this means that the blood circulates around the body approximately once every minute. During heavy work or EXERCISE, the volume of blood pumped by the heart can increase up to 25 litres per min (or even 35 litres per min in top class athletes).

How the Lungs Work

The lungs provide a very large surface area (the size of a football field) for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the environment.

A slice of normal lung looks like a pink sponge filled with tiny bubbles or holes. These bubbles, surrounded by a fine network of tiny blood vessels, give the lungs a large surface to exchange oxygen (into the blood where it is carried throughout the body) and carbon dioxide (out of the blood). This process is called gas exchange. Healthy lungs do this very well.

Here is how normal breathing works:

• You breathe in air through your nose and mouth. The air travels down through your windpipe (trachea) then through large and small tubes in your lungs called bronchial (BRON-kee-ul) tubes. The larger tubes are bronchi (BRONK-eye), and the smaller tubes are bronchioles (BRON-kee-oles). Sometimes the word "airways" is used to refer to the various tubes or passages that air must travel through from the nose and mouth into the lungs. The airways in your lungs look something like an upside-down tree with many branches.
• At the ends of the small bronchial tubes, there are groups of tiny air sacs called alveoli. The air sacs have very thin walls, and small blood vessels called capillaries run in the walls. Oxygen passes from the air sacs into the blood in these small blood vessels. At the same time, carbon dioxide passes from the blood into the air sacs. Carbon dioxide, a normal byproduct of the body's metabolism, must be removed.

The airways and air sacs in the lung are normally elastic—that is, they try to spring back to their original shape after being stretched or filled with air, just the way a new rubber band or balloon would. This elastic quality helps retain the normal structure of the lung and helps to move the air quickly in and out. In COPD, much of the elastic quality is gone, and the airways and air sacs no longer bounce back to their original shape. This means that the airways collapse, like a floppy hose, and the air sacs tend to stay inflated. The floppy airways obstruct the airflow out of the lungs, leading to an abnormal increase in the lungs' size. In addition, the airways may become inflamed and thickened, and mucus-producing cells produce more mucus, further contributing to the difficulty of getting air out of the lungs.