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The History Of Carbon

I. Introduction
A. The History of Carbon

II. Occurrences in Nature
A. Diamond B. Graphite C. Coal and Charcoal D. Amorphous Carbon

III. Carbon Compounds
A. Inorganic B. Organic

IV. The Carbon Cycle IV. Conclusion Carbon, an element discovered before history itself, is one of the most abundant elements in the universe. It can be found in the sun, the stars, comets, and the atmospheres of most planets. There are close to ten million known carbon compounds, many thousands of which are vital to the basis of life itself
(WWW 1).
Carbon occurs in many forms in nature. One of its purest forms is diamond. Diamond is the hardest substance known on earth.
Although diamonds found in nature are colorless and transparent, when combined with other elements its color can range from pastels to black. Diamond is a poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Until 1955 the only sources of diamond were found in deposits of volcanic origin. Since then scientists have found ways to make diamond from graphite and other synthetic materials. Diamonds of true gem quality are not made in this way (Beggott 3-4).
Graphite is another form of carbon. It occurs as a mineral in nature, but it can be made artificially from amorphous carbon. One of the main uses for graphite is for its lubricating qualities. Another is for the lead in pencils. Graphite is used as a heat resistant material and an electricity conductor. It is also used in nuclear reactors as a lubricator (Kino*censored*a 119-127).
Amorphous carbon is a deep black powder that occurs in nature as a component of coal. It may be obtained artificially from almost any organic substance by heating the substance to very high temperatures without air. Using this method, coke is produced from coal, and charcoal is produced from wood. Amorphous carbon is the most reactive form of carbon. Because amorphous carbon burns easily in air, it is used as a combustion fuel. The most important uses for amorphous carbon are as a filler for rubber and as a black pigment in paint (WWW 2).
There are two kinds of carbon compounds. The first is inorganic. Inorganic compounds are binary compounds of carbon with metals or metal carbides. They have properties ranging from reactive and saltlike; found in metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum, to an unreactive and metallic, such as titanium and niobium (Beggott 4). Carbon compounds containing nonmetals are usually gases or liquids with low boiling points. Carbon monoxide, a gas, is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon (Kino*censored*a 215-223). It is highly toxic to animals because it inhibits the transport of oxygen in the blood by hemoglobin (WWW 2).
Carbon dioxide is a colorless, almost odorless gas that is formed by the combustion of carbon. It is a product that results from respiration in most living organisms and is used by plants as a source of carbon. Frozen carbon dioxide, known as dry ice, is used as a refrigerant. Fluorocarbons, such as Freon, are used as refrigerants (Kino*censored*a 225-226). Organic compounds are those compounds that occur in nature. The simplest organic compounds consist of only carbon and hydrogen, the hydrocarbons. The state of matter for organic compounds depends on how many carbons are contained in it. If a compound has up to four carbons it is a gas, if it has up to 20 carbons it is a liquid, and if it has more than 20 carbons it is a solid (Kino*censored*a 230-237). The carbon cycle is the system of biological and chemical processes that make carbon available to living things for use in tissue building and energy release (Kino*censored*a 242). All living cells are composed of proteins consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in various combinations, and each living organism puts these elements together according to its own genetic code. To do this the organism must have these available in special compounds built around carbon. These special compounds are produced only by plants, by the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process in which chlorophyll traps and uses energy from the sun in the form of light. Six molecules of carbon dioxide combine with six molecules of water to form one molecule of glucose (sugar). The glucose molecule consists of six atoms of carbon, twelve of hydrogen, and six of oxygen. Six oxygen molecules, consisting of two oxygen atoms each, are also produced and are discharged into the atmosphere unless the plant needs energy to live. In that case, the oxygen combines with the glucose immediately, releasing six molecules of carbon dioxide and six of water for each molecule of glucose (Beggott 25-32). The carbon cycle is then completed as the plant obtains the energy that was stored by the glucose. The length of time required to complete the cycle varies. In plants without an immediate need for energy, the chemical processes continue in a variety of ways. By reducing the hydrogen and oxygen content of most of the sugar molecules by one water molecule and combining them to form large molecules, plants produce substances such as starch, inulin , and fats and store them for future use. Regardless of whether the stored food is used later by the plant or consumed by some other organism, the molecules will ultimately be digested and oxidized, and carbon dioxide and water will be discharged. Other molecules of sugar undergo a series of chemical changes and are finally combined with nitrogen compounds to form protein substances, which are then used to build tissues (WWW 2). Although protein substances may pass from organism to organism, eventually these too are oxidized and form carbon dioxide and water as cells wear out and are broken down, or as the organisms die. In either case, a new set of organisms, ranging from fungi to the large scavengers, use the waste products or tissues for food, digesting and oxidizing the substances for energy release (WWW 1).
At various times in the Earth's history, some plant and animal tissues have been protected by erosion and sedimentation from the natural agents of decomposition and converted into substances such as peat, lignite, petroleum, and coal. The carbon cycle, temporarily interrupted in this manner, is completed as fuels are burned, and carbon dioxide and water are again added to the atmosphere for reuse by living things, and the solar energy stored by photosynthesis ages ago is released (Kino*censored*a 273-275). Almost everything around us today has some connection with carbon or a carbon compound. Carbon is in every living organism. Without carbon life would not exist as we know it.

White Blood Cells

White Blood Cells Bacteria exist everywhere in the environment and have continuous access to the body through the mouth, nose and pores of skin. Further more, many cells age and die daily and their remains must be removed, this is where the white blood cell plays its role. According to this quotation, without white blood cells, also known as leukocytes, we would not be able to survive. White blood cells are our body’s number one defense against infections. They help keep us clean from foreign bacteria that enter our bodies. Statistics show that there are five to ten thousand white blood cells per micro liter of blood, however this number will increase during an illness. White blood cells can differ in many ways, such as, size, shape and staining traits. There are five different kinds of white blood cells that fall into two separate categories. One category is called, granular leukocytes, and the other is called agranular white cells. There are three different types of granular leukocytes. Neutrophil is a phagocyte, produced in the bone marrow that ingests and destroys bacteria extremely fast. Neutrophil has a diameter, which is, about ten to twelve micrometers long. They make up about 60-70 percent of the total number of white blood cells in our body. Eosinphil is a type of white blood cell that secretes poisonous materials in order to kill parasites, allergies and phagocytosis of bacteria, which is when the cell takes in materials to eliminate them or move them from where they were. They make up about 2-4 percent of the total number of white blood cells in our body. These white blood cells are similar to Neutrophil because they attack bacteria by the immune system. This particular group of white blood cells is extremely important in my body, because they are prominent at sites of allergic reactions, such as anaphylaxis. The nucleus of Eosinphil is made of two lobes, and implanted in the cytoplasm are large, red-orange granules, and the diameter of them is on average about twelve to fifteen µm. The third type of granular leukocytes is called, basophil. Basophil’s major function is, secretion. They tend to have a diameter of 12-15 µm. These cells make up only about one percent of the total population of white blood cells, causing them to be much more difficult to detect. These cells secrete both histamine and heparin. Histamine draws blood into the damaged area, while heparin slows clotting so that more blood can enter the damaged area. There are two different kinds of agranular white cells. One is called monocyte, and the other is called lymphocyte. The major function of monocyte is, phagocytosis. These cells more very quickly and are therefore able to consume bacteria and dead tissue at a fast rate. Monocytes have an average diameter of, 12-17 µm, and they make up about 3-8 percent of our leukocyte’s population. Lymphocytes, major function are immunity. There are many different forms of lymphocytes, and all of the different forms have different functions. B-lymphocytes produce, plasma cells, which form antibodies to (humeral immune response), T-lymphocytes produce, suppressor cells, helper cells, and cytotoxic, killer cells. Lymphocytes have a diameter of about 8-18 µm. In general leukocytes, “either clear away dead cells from the body, or destroy specific bacteria, viruses, and other agents of disease.”

Acid Rain

Acid Rain Acid rain is a serious problem with disastrous effects. Each day this serious problem increases, many people believe that this issue is too small to deal with right now this issue should be met head on and solved before it is too late. In the following paragraphs I will be discussing the impact has on the wildlife and how our atmosphere is being destroyed by acid rain. CAUSES Acid rain is a cancer eating into the face of Eastern Canada and the North Eastern United States. In Canada, the main sulphuric acid sources are non©ferrous smelters and power generation. On both sides of the border, cars and trucks are the main sources for nitric acid(about 40% of the total), while power generating plants and industrial commercial and residential fuel combustion together contribute most of the rest. In the air, the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can be transformed into sulphuric acid and nitric acid, and air current can send them thousands of kilometres from the source.When the acids fall to the earth in any form it will have large impact on the growth or the preservation of certain wildlife. NO DEFENCE Areas in Ontario mainly southern regions that are near the Great Lakes, such substances as limestone or other known antacids can neutralize acids entering the body of water thereby protecting it. However, large areas of Ontario that are near the Pre©Cambrian Shield, with quartzite or granite based geology and little top soil, there is not enough buffering capacity to neutralize even small amounts of acid falling on the soil and the lakes. Therefore over time, the basic environment shifts from an alkaline to a acidic one. This is why many lakes in the Muskoka, Haliburton, Algonquin, Parry Sound and Manitoulin districts could lose their fisheries if sulphur emissions are not reduced substantially. ACID The average mean of pH rainfall in Ontario's Muskoka©Haliburton lake country ranges between 3.95 and 4.38 about 40 times more acidic than normal rainfall, while storms in Pennsilvania have rainfall pH at 2.8 it almost has the same rating for vinegar. Already 140 Ontario lakes are completely dead or dying. An additional 48 000 are sensitive and vulnerable to acid rain due to the surrounding concentrated acidic soils.Ô ACID RAIN CONSISTS OF....? Canada does not have as many people, power plants or automobiles as the United States, and yet acid rain there has become so severe that Canadian government officials called it the most pressing environmental issue facing the nation. But it is important to bear in mind that acid rain is only one segment, of the widespread pollution of the atmosphere facing the world. Each year the global atmosphere is on the receiving end of 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide, 130 million tons of suffer dioxide, 97 million tons of hydrocarbons, 53 million tons of nitrogen oxides, more than three million tons of arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, nickel, zinc and other toxic metals, and a host of synthetic organic compounds ranging from polychlorinated biphenyls(PCBs) to toxaphene and other pesticides, a number of which may be capable of causing cancer, birth defects, or genetic imbalances. COST OF ACID RAIN Interactions of pollutants can cause problems. In addition to contributing to acid rain, nitrogen oxides can react with hydrocarbons to produce ozone, a major air pollutant responsible in the United States for annual losses of $2 billion to 4.5 billion worth of wheat, corn, soyabeans, and peanuts. A wide range of interactions can occur many unknown with toxic metals. In Canada, Ontario alone has lost the fish in an estimated 4000 lakes and provincial authorities calculate that Ontario stands to lose the fish in 48 500 more lakes within the next twenty years if acid rain continues at the present rate.Ontario is not alone, on Nova Scotia's Eastern most shores, almost every river flowing to the Atlantic Ocean is poisoned with acid. Further threatening a $2 million a year fishing industry. Ô Acid rain is killing more than lakes. It can scar the leaves of hardwood forest, wither ferns and lichens, accelerate the death of coniferous needles, sterilize seeds, and weaken the forests to a state that is vulnerable to disease infestation and decay. In the soil the acid neutralizes chemicals vital for growth, strips others from the soil and carries them to the lakes and literally retards the respiration of the soil. The rate of forest growth in the White Mountains of New Hampshire has declined 18% between 1956 and 1965, time of increasingly intense acidic rainfall. Acid rain no longer falls exclusively on the lakes, forest, and thin soils of the Northeast it now covers half the continent. EFFECTS There is evidence that the rain is destroying the productivity of the once rich soils themselves, like an overdose of chemical fertilizer or a gigantic drenching of vinegar. The damage of such overdosing may not be repairable or reversible. On some croplands, tomatoes grow to only half their full weight, and the leaves of radishes wither. Naturally it rains on cities too, eating away stone monuments and concrete structures, and corroding the pipes which channel the water away to the lakes and the cycle is repeated. Paints and automobile paints have its life reduce due to the pollution in the atmosphere speeding up the corrosion process. In some communities the drinking water is laced with toxic metals freed from metal pipes by the acidity. As if urban skies were not already grey enough, typical visibility has declined from 10 to 4 miles, along the Eastern seaboard, as acid rain turns into smogs. Also, now there are indicators that the components of acid rain are a health risk, linked to human respiratory disease. PREVENTION However, the acidification of water supplies could result in increased concentrations of metals in plumbing such as lead, copper and zinc which could result in adverse health effects. After any period of non©use, water taps at summer cottages or ski chalets they should run the taps for at least 60 seconds to flush any excess debris. Ô STATISTICS Although there is very little data, the evidence indicates that in the last twenty to thirty years the acidity of rain has increased in many parts of the United States. Presently, the United States annually discharges more than 26 million tons of suffer dioxide into the atmosphere. Just three states, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois are responsible for nearly a quarter of this total. Overall, twoªthirds of the suffer dioxide into the atmosphere over the United States comes from coal©fired and oil fired plants. Industrial boilers, smelters, and refineries contribute 26%; commercial institutions and residences 5%; and transportation 3%. The outlook for future emissions of suffer dioxide is not a bright one. Between now and the year 2000, United States utilities are expected to double the amount of coal they burn. The United States currently pumps some 23 million tons of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere in the course of the year. Transportation sources account for 40%; power plants, 30%; industrial sources, 25%; and commercial institutions and residues, 5%. What makes these figures particularly distributing is that nitrogen oxide emissions have tripled in the last thirty years. FINAL THOUGHTS Acid rain is very real and a very threatening problem. Action by one government is not enough. In order for things to be done we need to find a way to work together on this for at least a reduction in the contaminates contributing to acid rain. Although there are right steps in the right directions but the government should be cracking down on factories not using the best filtering systems when incinerating or if the factory is giving off any other dangerous fumes. I would like to express this question to you, the public:WOULD YOU RATHER PAY A LITTLE NOW OR A LOT LATER?

What Is Science

define science as a system of knowledge about a specific topic. The systems come from systematic, or precise, observations of natural events; a random example would be the study of the movement of a caterpillar. This very fact would make one think that science encompasses every topic in the world. It amazingly does; from apples to zucchini (in the science called botany). Science is not just the “systems” of Chemistry, Physics, and Biology as traditionally known. It is the systems of our knowledge about everything on this planet, beyond, and even the human race. Science is an action word in most cases. I am witnessing the topics in the science of anatomy and physiology as type this home-lesson: the blood vessels supplying blood to my bones are allowing me to move my fingers and press the keys. Furthermore, science is a vehicle for change in our society today. The systems of knowledge are communicated by scientists through science media such as journals, web-sites (the internet), newspapers and through person-to-person interaction. At Tufts University a Ph.D. student may share his experiment on drug metabolism rates in the form of a presentation; moreover, someone in his same lab might use points from his research as a stepping stone or bridge leading and connecting, respectively their research to success. Science is what we are and what shapes our world.

Nanotechnology

The science of nanotechnology could lead to radical improvements for space exploration.

When it comes to taking the next "giant leap" in space exploration, NASA is thinking small - really small.

In laboratories around the country, NASA is supporting the burgeoning science of nanotechnology. The basic idea is to learn to deal with matter at the atomic scale - to be able to control individual atoms and molecules well enough to design molecule-size machines, advanced electronics and "smart" materials.

If visionaries are right, nanotechnology could lead to robots you can hold on your fingertip, self-healing spacesuits, space elevators and other fantastic devices. Some of these things may take 20+ years to fully develop; others are taking shape in the laboratory today.

Thinking small

Image by artist Pat Rawling. Nanotechnology could provide the very high-strength, low-weight fibers that would be needed to build the cable of a "space elevator."

Simply making things smaller has its advantages. Imagine, for example, if the Mars rovers Spirit and Opportunity could have been made as small as a beetle, and could scurry over rocks and gravel as a beetle can, sampling minerals and searching for clues to the history of water on Mars. Hundreds or thousands of these diminutive robots could have been sent in the same capsules that carried the two desk-size rovers, enabling scientists to explore much more of the planet's surface - and increasing the odds of stumbling across a fossilized Martian bacterium!

But nanotechnology is about more than just shrinking things. When scientists can deliberately order and structure matter at the molecular level, amazing new properties sometimes emerge.

An excellent example is that darling of the nanotechnology world, the carbon nanotube. Carbon occurs naturally as graphite - the soft, black material often used in pencil leads - and as diamond. The only difference between the two is the arrangement of the carbon atoms. When scientists arrange the same carbon atoms into a "chicken wire" pattern and roll them up into miniscule tubes only 10 atoms across, the resulting "nanotubes" acquire some rather extraordinary traits.

Nanotubes:

How Space Was Created?

When we look around us we take the space for granted. We know that space is the distance between tow objects. Or what lies between two objects. As things are scattered in the world there is space that occupies that. It is true for outer space that lies between tow stars. This space is three-dimensional. Was this space there since eternity? Who created the space? If no object is left in the cosmos what would happen to the space? Will it still remain? How Space Was Created?

We know that at the time of Big bang everything exploded out of a point called singularity. What most of us do not realize is that at that time there was no space. There was only this single point in the cosmos and nothing else. It is difficult to imagine and understand, isn't it?

As the mass and energy exploded out space was created. At this time there are billions of stars that are running away from us. The universe is expanding. This is creating more and more space. What lies beyond this space? Is there another cosmos/universe or more space? No body knows the answer to this question. According to Einstein one can never reach the edge of the space. This space is something like the surface of the earth. There are no edges. It folds on itself. So if you start looking or the edge of the space you will come back from where you began. Of course the distances are so vast that it is impossible for any mortal to think of doing this. Billions of light years make a very huge distance. This distance is unimaginable.

Next time you look at the sky begin thinking about the space, the stars and what lies beyond everything. You will forget your problems at home and work because you will feel you are so small compared to what is happening out there.

4 Simple Inventions That Changed the World

There are many conveniences that we take for granted these days. In fact, it's hard to imagine life without many things that were cutting edge long ago! Computers, vehicles, gas and electric ranges, sewing machines and ballpoint pens are just some of the innovations that influence daily life.

They say the simplest inventions are the cleverest. I agree. There is a recent story about a three-year old kid who invented a double-ended broom, one for a coarse brush and one for a fine brush. It's amazing that he's the first to patent that. Throughout history, such simple inventions changed the lives of people everywhere. What are these all-important devices?

1. The Wheel - one of the early inventions that changed the way humans lived. We see it everywhere; on cars, trucks, planes, ships, inside machines, toys, and much much more. Life wouldn't be the same without the wheel. It was said to be invented by the Mesopotamians in 4th century BC, eventually helping usher about the Bronze Age. Starting from wooden carts and wagons, the simple yet so very useful device evolved over time. With so many uses and applications, it is forever part of the human race, and one of the first steps to civilization. Can you imagine being unable to take a taxi to your hotel, instead footing several miles with tons of bags? Or spending an hour walking to get to the mall?

2. Tools - Yet another thing that set us on the path of civilization. Humans have opposable thumbs, which led to the creation of tools. Simple tools like sharp rocks used to cut turned into knives and spears. Large rock used as a hammer became actual hammers. We built our own houses, caught animals, made our own fields and improved our way of life with tools. Interestingly, some mammals and birds use tools too.

3. Sewers - Sanitation is important to civilized people. A system where waste is gathered and disposed of in once place rather than everywhere is indeed helpful. Ancient people saw this, and were among the first to invent the system. Today, we rarely think of the network of pipes running under our feet, making sure that our waste stays out of our sight, and out of our noses! I'm happy knowing that we're not defecating on the ground. Well, most of the time.

4. Roads - Along with the first wheeled inventions, roads came about. Dirt paths worn by hunters were common before vehicles, but it was only after the wheeled inventions were invented that there became a real need for better roads. Dirt-worn paths became wood, stone and brick roads. Because of the ease of transport roads offered, the world became prosperous. Today, they are the backbone of economy and society. Imagine life without roads now. We would be living in houses in a haphazard manner. Goods are transported slower. There would be more accidents

There you have it! These are, for me, the ones that truly shaped the world. Well, I guess money did, too. What inventions do you think changed the world?

Human Anatomy

I have studied and interviewed groups of medical and science students that have excelled in their course work. It is true that there are specific and detailed guidelines that these students adhere to and credit for their academic success. With some time and applying these study skills to your studies you can greatly improve your academic performance. The following are study strategies and tips from past honor students of Human Anatomy.

Study Skill #1 - It is NOT enough to simply read, re-read, and re-type up the notes. The goal in anatomy is to become a visual learner, so it is extremely important to keep pictures in front of you. Let's say you are studying the forearm for example. The best approach is three pronged. That is, to have three pictures out side-by-side, one of the superficial structures, one of the deep muscles and bone matrix, and a third of cross-sections. Now as you read each sentence of your text, the words will have graphic substance to support them. This allows your brain to start building the 3-D structure of the human body.

Study Skill #2 - Knowing the relationships is key. This means that if you are given a point anywhere in the human body, that you should be able to navigate your way to any other point by spatial relationships to landmark structures. The best way to accomplish this is by describing the path of a body part in relation to its surroundings. Let's take the Ulnar Nerve for example. Beginning in the axilla, it courses as the most medial branch of the brachial plexus. As it descends down the arm, it remains superficial to the triceps muscles, medial to the humerus, and maintains a tight medial position to the brachial artery. It continues this until the distal region of the arm, where it courses on the posterior aspect of the humerus, and then it makes a tight cross over the elbow joint posterior to the medial epicondyle. It continues between the heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and enters the anterior compartment of the forearm where it accompanies the ulnar artery. This will enhance your understanding of human anatomy because it forces your brain to travel through the mental images and describe it in your own words. This is a skill that will be necessary for nerve lesion questions.

Study Skill #3 - Make charts for the muscles. List the muscles in the rows on the left and then make columns on the right for Origin, Insertion, Action, and Innervation. Stare at pictures of the muscle under study and match the answers in the columns with the pictures.

Study Skill #4 - Memorize the boundaries and contents of specific compartments of the human body. For example, the Cubital Fossa is bounded: Laterally - medial border of brachioradialis, Medially - the lateral border of pronator teres, Floor - brachialis, Roof - skin and fascia, Contents - median nerve, brachial artery, tendon of biceps, radial nerve, & median cubital vein. Once these have been memorized they serve as valuable landmarks to navigate your way around the body.

Study Skill #5 - Understand the terminology. This is obvious, but if you do it from the very beginning of your human anatomy course it will save you a lot of time later on. Anatomists often sound like they are speaking a different language and it overwhelms students at first. But if you take the time, you will see that a name of a muscle or ligament will often tell of its origin, insertion, or action. Flexor Digitorum Profundus for example, is the major muscle that flexes the fingers. Therefore, you may already know what Flexor Digitorum Superficialis does, it's the same action, but this weaker muscle lies closer to the surface of the forearm. In addition, arteries tend to be named for their destination. The right coronary artery will supply blood to the right ventricle of the heart. Knowing the terminology breaks down the information in digestable pieces and makes it easier for you to remember where things are positioned.

Study Skill #6 - Photocopy the pictures from your anatomy book and white out the labels. In fact, make several copies of important diagrams without labels and use these to study and fill them in on your own. It is often helpful to use these same pictures to trace the pathways of the nerves and arteries with colored pencils. This will help to separate the structures in your mind and reinforce their routes.

Study Skill #7 - If you have access to a cadaver, give him/her a name, because the amount of time you spend with the cadaver is directly related to your grade. Identify the same structure on multiple cadavers. This exercise will prove that you can use different anatomical landmarks as a navigation system for the human body. This is also important to understand and identify regions of variation in the body, such as arterial branches of the subclavian. Keep in mind that arteries should be named based on where they are going, not where they branched from.

Jordan Castle is medical student and cognitive psychologist research assistant. His work spans many different aspects of the learning process and aims to help students excel in their individual courses. Detailed study strategies and practice exams can be found on his website at http://medstudysites.com Courses include: Physiology, Genetics, Histology, Neuroanatomy, and Histology.

About Gasifier

The first gasifiers were known as gasification retorts and they have been around for well over a century providing our town gas supplies from coal. In basic terms they involve a container in which combustible fuel is heated, driving off flammable hydrocarbon gases. These gases are then scrubbed in filters to remove particulate matter and any corrosive chemicals, before being plumbed into anything from the towns gas supply to a modified carburettor to fuel a standard internal combustion engine.

Gasifiers are available now. They are proven technology. They can and are helping in the war to reduce gas and electricity prices, and the magic thing is that the same principle can be applied to many fuels other than coal.

These systems are capable of producing electricity from any biomass source. They may use any fuel in some, such as coal, petroleum coke, residual oil, oil emulsions, tar sands, and/or other similar fuels. Gasifiers produce a gas which is commonly known as syngas. This gas is used mostly where it is created to power a gas turbine. Gasification uses chemistry and high temperature and pressures to change the way the coal or other form of solid carbonaceous (fossil) fuel produces heat. In other words instead of burning the fuel outright, a gasifier part burns the fuel due to the presence of only a limited amount of oxygen and creates a fuel gas.

One gasifier, for example, is a device that has been developed by TERI (The Tata Energy Research Institute in India) for use in the drying of cardamom. The gasifier uses briquettes that are made from firewood and other types of biomass and turns them into a gas that burns with a clean smokeless flame.

In another example a gasifier is the key component in the Ag Bio-Power Energy System, but it is not the only component. In the patented configuration of the system, solid wastes containing metals and other non-combustible materials are burned separately while a gasifier is used as a scrubber for the polluting emissions because gasification is so good at burning out these substances.

It is reported that Household and Commercial Waste can also be gasified. In this case combustible gases are used within the system for increased efficiency and high temperature combustion than is archived in an incinerator. After gasification the residue of thermal decomposition is cooled and rough particles such as metals and non-combustibles are separated by means of a vibrating sieve and magnetic separator. The separated fine particles are mostly ash and carbon content, and these particles can then be crushed and sent to the final furnace for vitrification, where they are turned into essentially a form of glass, safely binding in any toxic substances, out of harm's way, for ever.

Combustible waste from industrial production processes which is reported to be suitable for gasification includes textile waste, wood scrap/trimmings, plastic scrap, and non-reusable solvents. Textile waste can consist of excess yarn, thread, cloth, carpet, or any other fabric. Combustion temperatures of 1500-1600~F and heat release rates of about 400,000 Btu/cu ft/hr are possible and give heat transfer rates reported to be larger than those of conventional pulverized coal boilers.

Some of these technology providers are claiming cell microturbine combinations are possible which have the potential to achieve up to 60 percent efficiency and near-zero emissions. On top of that they say that fuel flexibility enables the use of low-cost indigenous fuels, renewables and waste materials. Even, for example, experts say briquettes produced from agricultural residues can be used in some gasifier models.

Some gasifier plant is now also being developed which is based on fluidized bed technology with the possibility of the common and low cost availability of practically zero emissions release systems achieving high efficiencies using a host cheap, locally produced, renewable fuel sources.

Now, we think that this is pretty cool, when at present all we can see is rapidly rising gas prices and practically no alternatives for me and you, but to pay them.

Reducing energy demand, especially in the sense of better insulation for heating homes and offices, is of course, more of a potential for saving CO2 emissions, but that's not what what we are discussing in this article.

We have been here before, as well, in that in the mid to late 1970s, when it was believed that there was going to be a shortfall of oil due to the formation of OPEC, fuel prices rose excessively. At that time also there was an expected decline in supplies, and considerable effort went into developing alternatives. But, those efforts came to very little, as in real terms the alternatives were still more expensive than the oil and coal based alternatives. This time around that is no longer the case, so expect to hear about more suddenly "cool" energy solutions, but which are also very "hot" indeed - at the same time!