The Lost Space - Black Hole

The Black Hole Spinning

The Effect of Black Hole

Black Hole in Solar System

A black hole is a region of space in which the gravitational field is so powerful that nothing can escape after having fallen past the event horizon. The name comes from the fact that even electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) is unable to escape, rendering the interior invisible. However, black holes can be detected if they interact with matter outside the event horizon, for example by drawing in gas from an orbiting star. The gas spirals inward, heating up to very high temperatures and emitting large amounts of radiation in the process

While the idea of an object with gravity strong enough to prevent light from escaping was proposed in the 18th century, black holes as presently understood are described by Einstein's theory of general relativity, developed in 1916. This theory predicts that when a large enough amount of mass is present within a sufficiently small region of space, all paths through space are warped inwards towards the center of the volume, forcing all matter and radiation to fall inward.

While general relativity describes a black hole as a region of empty space with a pointlike singularity at the center and an event horizon at the outer edge, the description changes when the effects of quantum mechanics are taken into account. Research on this subject indicates that, rather than holding captured matter forever, black holes may slowly leak a form of thermal energy called Hawking radiation.^[5][6][7] However, the final, correct description of black holes, requiring a theory of quantum gravity, is unknown.

Simulated view of a black hole in front of the Milky Way. The hole has 10 solar masses and is viewed from a distance of 600 km. An acceleration of about 400 million g is necessary to sustain this distance constantly.

Sizes of black holes

Black holes can have any mass. Since gravity increases in inverse proportion to volume, any quantity of matter that is sufficiently compressed will become a black hole. However, when black holes form naturally, only a few mass ranges are realistic.

Black holes can be divided into several size categories:

• Supermassive black holes that contain millions to billions of times the mass of the sun are believed to exist in the center of most galaxies, including our own Milky Way. They are thought to be responsible for active galactic nuclei.
• Intermediate-mass black holes, whose size is measured in thousands of solar masses, may exist. Intermediate-mass black holes have been proposed as a possible power source for ultra-luminous X ray sources.
• Stellar-mass black holes have masses ranging from about 1.5-3.0 solar masses (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit) to 15 solar masses. These black holes are created by the collapse of individual stars. Stars above about 20 solar masses may collapse to form black holes; the cores of lighter stars form neutron stars or white dwarf stars. In all cases some of the star's material is lost (blown away during the red giant stage for stars that turn into white dwarfs, or lost in a supernova explosion for stars that turn into neutron stars or black holes).
• Micro black holes, which have masses at which the effects of quantum mechanics are expected to become very important. This is usually assumed to be near the Planck mass. Alternatively, the term micro black hole or mini black hole may refer to any black hole with mass much less than that of a star. Black holes of this type have been proposed to have formed during the Big Bang (primordial black holes), but no such holes have been detected as of 2007.

Astrophysicists expect to find stellar-mass and larger black holes, because a stellar mass black hole is formed by the gravitational collapse of a star of 20 or more solar masses at the end of its life, and can then act as a seed for the formation of a much larger black hole.

Micro black holes might be produced by:

• The Big Bang, which produced pressures far larger than that of a supernova and therefore sufficient to produce primordial black holes without needing the powerful gravity fields of collapsing large stars.
• High-energy particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), if certain non-standard assumptions are correct (typically, an assumption of large extra dimensions). However, any black holes produced in such a manner will evaporate practically instantaneously, thus posing no danger to Earth.

What makes it impossible to escape from black holes?

General relativity describes mass as changing the shape of spacetime, and the shape of spacetime as describing how matter moves through space. For objects much less dense than black holes, this results in something similar to Newton's laws of gravity: objects with mass attract each other, but it's possible to define an escape velocity which allows a test object to leave the gravitational field of any large object. For objects as dense as black holes, this stops being the case. The effort required to leave the hole becomes infinite, with no escape velocity defined.

There are several ways of describing the situation that causes escape to be impossible. The difference between these descriptions is how space and time coordinates are drawn on spacetime (the choice of coordinates depends on the choice of observation point and on additional definitions used). One common description, based on the Schwarzschild description of black holes, is to consider the time axis in spacetime to point inwards towards the center of the black hole once the horizon is crossed.^[8] Under these conditions, falling further into the hole is as inevitable as moving forward in time. A related description is to consider the future light cone of a test object near the hole (all possible paths the object or anything emitted by it could take, limited by the speed of light). As the object approaches the event horizon at the boundary of the black hole, the future light cone tilts inwards towards the horizon. When the test object passes the horizon, the cone tilts completely inward, and all possible paths lead into the hole.^[9]

Do black holes have "no hair"?

Main article: No hair theorem

The "No hair" theorem states that black holes have only 3 independent internal properties: mass, angular momentum and electric charge. It is impossible to tell the difference between a black hole formed from a highly compressed mass of normal matter and one formed from, say, a highly compressed mass of anti-matter; in other words, any information about infalling matter or energy is destroyed. This is the black hole information paradox.

The theorem only works in some of the types of universe which the equations of general relativity allow, but this includes four-dimensional spacetimes with a zero or positive cosmological constant, which describes our universe at the classical level.

Types of black holes

Despite the uncertainty about whether the "No Hair" theorem applies to our universe, astrophysicists currently classify black holes according to their angular momentum (non-zero angular momentum means the black hole is rotating) and electric charge:

	Non-rotating	Rotating
Uncharged	Schwarzschild	Kerr
Charged	Reissner-Nordström	Kerr-Newman

(All black holes have non-zero mass, so mass cannot be used for this type of "yes" / "no" classification)

Physicists do not expect that black holes with a significant electric charge will be formed in nature, because the electromagnetic repulsion which resists the compression of an electrically charged mass is about 40 orders of magnitude greater (about 10⁴⁰ times greater) than the gravitational attraction which compresses the mass. So this article does not cover charged black holes in detail, but the Reissner-Nordström black hole and Kerr-Newman metric articles provide more information.

On the other hand astrophysicists expect that almost all black holes will rotate, because the stars from which they are formed rotate. In fact most black holes are expected to spin very rapidly, because they retain most of the angular momentum of the stars from which they were formed but concentrated into a much smaller radius. The same laws of angular momentum make skaters spin faster if they pull their arms closer to their bodies.

This article describes non-rotating, uncharged black holes first, because they are the simplest type.

Discover How Rocks Are Formed

Discover How Rocks Are Formed

ROCK

The Formation of Rock

The REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS.

The human reproductive system. The changes that take place during adolescence as the reproductive system develops are described, as well as the way that the foetus develops in the uterus. It has these parts in it: The male reproductive system The female reproductive system The menstrual cycle Fertilisation and the development of the foetus Puberty The male reproductive system The reproductive system contains the organs needed for reproduction or producing babies. The male reproductive system contains these parts: testes (pronounced "test-eez") glands sperm ducts urethra penis. Male reproductive system Testes The two testes (one of them is called a testis) are contained in a bag of skin called the scrotum. They have two functions: to produce millions of male sex cells called sperm to make male sex hormones, which affect the way a man's body develops. Sperm duct and glands The sperm can pass through the sperm ducts, and mix with fluids produced by the glands. The fluids provide the sperm cells with nutrients. The mixture of sperm and fluids is called semen. Penis and urethra The penis has two functions: to pass urine out of the man's body to pass semen into the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse. The urethra is the tube inside the penis that can carry urine or semen. A ring of muscle makes sure that there is no chance of urine and semen getting mixed up. The female reproductive system The female reproductive system contains these parts: ovaries egg tubes uterus (pronounced "yoo-ter-russ") cervix vagina. Female reproductive system Ovaries The two ovaries contain hundreds of undeveloped female sex cells called egg cells or ova. Women have these cells in their bodies from birth - whereas men produce new sperm continually. Egg tubes Each ovary is connected to the uterus by an egg tube. This is sometimes called an oviduct or Fallopian tube. The egg tube is lined with cilia, which are tiny hairs on cells. Every month, an egg develops and becomes mature, and is released from an ovary. The cilia waft the egg along inside the egg tube and into the uterus. Uterus and cervix The uterus is also called the womb. It is a muscular bag with a soft lining. The uterus is where a baby develops until its birth. The cervix is a ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus. It keeps the baby in place while the woman is pregnant. Vagina The vagina is a muscular tube that leads from the cervix to the outside of the woman's body. A man's penis goes into the woman's vagina during sexual intercourse. The opening to the vagina has folds of skin called labia that meet to form a vulva. The urethra also opens into the vulva, but it is separate from the vagina, and is used for passing urine from the body. The menstrual cycle The female reproductive system includes a cycle of events called the menstrual cycle. It lasts about 28 days, but it can be slightly less or more than this. The cycle stops while a woman is pregnant. These are the main features of the menstrual cycle. The start of the cycle, day 1, is when bleeding from the vagina begins. This is caused by the loss of the lining of the uterus, with a little blood. This is called menstruation or having a period. By the end of about day 5, the loss of blood stops. The lining of the uterus begins to re-grow and an egg cell starts to mature in one of the ovaries. At about day 14, the mature egg cell is released from the ovary. This is called ovulation. The egg cell travels through the egg tube towards the uterus. If the egg cell does not meet with a sperm cell, the lining of the uterus begins to break down and the cycle repeats. If the egg cell meets and joins with a sperm cell, it is fertilised. It attaches to the lining of the uterus and the woman becomes pregnant. Fertilisation and the development of the foetus Fertilisation Fertilisation happens when an egg cell meets with a sperm cell and joins with it. This happens after sexual intercourse in which a man puts his penis into the woman's vagina. Sperm cells travel in semen from the penis and into the top of the vagina. They enter the uterus through the cervix and travel to the egg tubes. If a sperm cell meets with an egg cell there, fertilisation can happen. The fertilised egg divides to form a ball of cells called an embryo. This attaches to the lining of the uterus and begins to develop into a foetus (pronounced "fee-tuss") and finally a baby. Development of the foetus The foetus relies upon its mother as it develops. These are some of the things it needs: protection oxygen nutrients (food and water). It also needs its waste substances removing. The foetus is protected by the uterus and the amniotic fluid, a liquid contained in a bag called the amnion. The placenta is responsible for providing oxygen and nutrients, and removing waste substances. It grows into the wall of the uterus and is joined to the foetus by the umbilical cord. The mother's blood does not mix with the foetus's blood, but the placenta lets substances pass between the two blood supplies: oxygen and nutrients diffuse across the placenta from the mother to the foetus waste substances, such as carbon dioxide, diffuse across the placenta from the foetus to the mother. Birth After nine months the baby is ready to be born. The cervix relaxes and muscles in the wall of the uterus contract, pushing the baby out of the mother's body. Puberty The reproductive system of a child is not mature and needs to change as a boy or girl develops into an adult, so that the system is fully working. These changes begin between the ages of ten and fifteen. The time when the changes happen is called puberty. The changes happen because of sex hormones produced by the testes in boys and by the ovaries in girls. Some changes happen in boys and girls, while others just happen in boys or girls. Here are some changes that happen to boys and girls: underarm hair grows pubic hair grows body smell gets stronger. There are also emotional changes at this time, and a growth spurt. The time when the physical changes and emotional changes happen is called adolescence. Graph of heights Here are some changes that only happen to boys: voice breaks (gets deeper) testes and penis get bigger testes start to produce sperm cells shoulders get wider hair grows on face and chest. Here are some changes that only happen to girls: breasts develop ovaries start to release egg cells (periods start) hips get wider.